The Italian communes

The story

Cities that govern themselves

In northern and central Italy in the Middle Ages, the towns were the liveliest part of the country. Above them, at least on paper, were the German kings and emperors, and the pope. But the king and the emperor were usually far away, beyond the Alps, and the bishops or counts who governed for them did not always manage to make themselves obeyed. Towards the end of the 11th century, the richest and most important citizens, that is, merchants, craftsmen and minor nobles, began to agree among themselves to organise themselves.

They made an oath, the “coniuratio”, by which they promised to help one another and to defend the interests of the town. That association of citizens took the name “commune”. The first communes were formed between the end of the 11th and the beginning of the 12th century, in towns such as Pisa, Genoa, Milan, Asti, Lucca, Bologna and others. There is no exact day of birth: they came into being slowly, without revolutions.

Consuls, councils and podestàs

The communes were led by magistrates called “consuls”, usually two or more, chosen every year from the most prominent families. Because their term was short, they could not hold power for too long. Alongside them were councils of citizens who discussed and voted on decisions, and a general assembly, the “arengo”, in which all the men who had the right to vote gathered in the square or in church. Women, the poor and foreigners were excluded.

With the quarrels between families, which sometimes ended in battles in the street, many communes, from the end of the 12th century, turned to a “podestà”, that is, an outsider magistrate, chosen for one year and paid by the town, who had to govern impartially. The podestà arrived with his retinue of judges and officials, and could have no relatives in the town.

The towns built the symbols of the new power: the town hall, the tower with the bell to call the citizens together, walls, squares and fountains. Rich families raised tall stone towers, which served to defend themselves and to show off their power: a few can still be seen at San Gimignano.

Against Barbarossa

The emperors did not accept the independence of the communes. Frederick Barbarossa, from 1154, came down into Italy several times to bring them back under control, and destroyed Milan in 1162. In reaction, in 1167 many towns of the north, which had previously fought one another, joined together in the Lombard League. On 29 May 1176, at Legnano, near Milan, the army of the League defeated the imperial one. In 1183, with the Peace of Constance, the emperor recognised the right of the communes of the League to govern themselves, make laws and have their own militias, keeping the supreme sovereignty, with the investiture of the consuls.

Each commune went to war with its carroccio, a great cart drawn by oxen, carrying the altar, the bells and the banner of the town. It was the symbol of the town's honour: losing it in battle was a terrible disgrace, and so the soldiers defended it to the end. At Legnano, according to tradition, the bravest foot soldiers gathered around the carroccio.

An age of splendour and quarrels

In the communes the guilds, banking, taxation and the first public schools were born. The towns were adorned with churches and palaces. But there were constant divisions: the communes made war on one another, and inside each town rival parties clashed, such as the Guelphs, close to the pope, and the Ghibellines, close to the emperor. From the 1200s, power often passed to one family or one lord: the signorie replaced the communes.